8.2.2.1 Class-D Operation

This section focuses on the Class-D operation of the TPA3111D1-Q1 device.

8.2.2.2 TPA3111D1-Q1 Modulation Scheme

The TPA3111D1-Q1 device uses a modulation scheme that allows operation without the classic LC reconstruction filter when the amplifier is driving an inductive load. Each output is switching from 0 V to the supply voltage. The OUTP and OUTN pins are in phase with each other with no input so that there is little or no current in the speaker. The duty cycle of the OUTP pin is greater than 50% and the duty cycle of the OUTN pin is less than 50% for positive output voltages. The duty cycle of the OUTP pin is less than 50% and the duty cycle of the OUTN pin is greater than 50% for negative output voltages. The voltage across the load sits at 0 V throughout most of the switching period, greatly reducing the switching current, which reduces any I²R losses in the load. See Figure 20 for a plot of the output waveforms.

8.2.2.3 Ferrite Bead Filter Considerations

Using the advanced emissions suppression technology in the TPA3111D1-Q1 amplifier, designing a high efficiency Class-D audio amplifier is possible while minimizing interference to surrounding circuits. This design can also be accomplished with only a low-cost ferrite bead filter. In this case, the ferrite bead used in the filter must be carefully selected.

One important aspect of the ferrite bead selection is the type of material used in the ferrite bead. Not all ferrite material is alike, therefore select a material that is effective in the 10-MHz to 100-MHz range which is key to the operation of the Class-D amplifier. Many of the specifications regulating consumer electronics have emissions limits as low as 30 MHz. Use the ferrite bead filter to block radiation in the 30-MHz and above range from appearing on the speaker wires and the power supply lines which are good antennas for these signals. The impedance of the ferrite bead can be used along with a small capacitor with a value in the range of 1000 pF to reduce the frequency spectrum of the signal to an acceptable level. For best performance, the resonant frequency of the ferrite bead and capacitor filter should be less than 10 MHz.

Also, ensure that the ferrite bead is large enough to maintain the impedance at the peak currents expected for the amplifier. Some ferrite bead manufacturers specify the bead impedance at a variety of current levels. In this case, ensure that the ferrite bead maintains an adequate amount of impedance at the peak current the amplifier sees. If these specifications are not available, estimate the bead current handling capability by measuring the resonant frequency of the filter output at very low power and at maximum power. A change of resonant frequency of less than 50% under this condition is desirable. Examples of tested ferrite beads that work well with the TPA3110D2-Q1 device include 28L0138-80R-10 and HI1812V101R-10 from Steward and the 742792510 from Wurth Electronics.

A high-quality ceramic capacitor is also required for the ferrite bead filter. A low-ESR capacitor with good temperature and voltage characteristics works best.

Additional EMC improvements can be obtained by adding snubber networks from each of the Class-D outputs to ground. The suggested values for a simple RC series snubber network is a 10-Ω resistor in series with a 330-pF capacitor, although the design of the snubber network is specific to every application and must consider the parasitic reactance of the printed circuit board as well as the audio amplifier. Take care to evaluate the stress on the component in the snubber network especially if the amplifier is running at a high PVCC supply. Also, ensure the layout of the snubber network is tight and returns directly to the PGND pin or the PowerPAD beneath the chip.

8.2.2.4 Efficiency: LC Filter Required With the Traditional Class-D Modulation Scheme

The main reason that the traditional Class-D amplifier needs an output filter is because the switching waveform results in maximum current flow, which causes more loss in the load resulting in lower efficiency. The ripple current is large for the traditional modulation scheme, because the ripple current is proportional to voltage multiplied by the time at that voltage. The differential voltage swing is 2 × V_CC, and the time at each voltage is half the period for the traditional modulation scheme. An ideal LC filter is required to store the ripple current from each half cycle for the next half cycle, while any resistance causes power dissipation. The speaker is both resistive and reactive, whereas an LC filter is almost purely reactive.

The TPA3111D1-Q1 modulation scheme has little loss in the load without a filter because the pulses are short and the change in voltage is V_CC instead of 2 × V_CC. As the output power increases, the pulses widen, making the ripple current larger. Ripple current can be filtered with an LC filter for increased efficiency, but for most applications the filter is not required.

An LC filter with a cutoff frequency less than the Class-D switching frequency allows the switching current to flow through the filter instead of the load. The filter has less resistance but higher impedance at the switching frequency than the speaker, which results in less power dissipation, therefore increasing efficiency.

8.2.2.5 When to Use an Output Filter for EMI Suppression

The TPA3111D1-Q1 device has been tested with a simple ferrite bead filter for a variety of applications including long speaker wires up to 125 cm and high power. The TPA3111D1EVM passes FCC Class-B specifications under these conditions using twisted speaker wires. The size and type of ferrite bead can be selected to meet application requirements. Also, the filter capacitor can be increased if necessary with some impact on efficiency.

A few circuit instances may require the addition of a complete LC reconstruction filter. These circumstances might occur if nearby circuits are very sensitive to noise. In these cases a classic second order Butterworth filter similar to those shown in the following figures can be used.

Figure 17. Typical LC Output Filter, Cutoff Frequency of 27 kHz, Speaker Impedance = 8 Ω

Figure 18. Typical LC Output Filter, Cutoff Frequency of 27 kHz, Speaker Impedance = 4 Ω

Figure 19. Typical Ferrite Chip Bead Filter (Chip Bead Example: Steward HI0805R800R-10)

8.2.2.6 Input Resistance

Changing the gain setting can vary the input resistance of the amplifier from the smallest value, 9 kΩ ±20%, to the largest value, 60 kΩ ±20%. As a result, if a single capacitor is used in the input high-pass filter, the –3 dB or cutoff frequency may change when changing gain steps.

Use Equation 2 to calculate the –3-dB frequency . Use the values listed in Table 2 for Z_I.

Equation 2.

8.2.2.7 Input Capacitor, C_I

In the typical application, an input capacitor (C_I) is required to allow the amplifier to bias the input signal to the proper DC level for optimum operation. In this case, C_I and the input impedance of the amplifier (Z_I) form a high-pass filter with the corner frequency determined in Equation 3.

Equation 3.

The value of C_I is important, as it directly affects the bass (low-frequency) performance of the circuit. Consider the example where Z_I is 60 kΩ and the specification calls for a flat bass response down to 20 Hz. Equation 3 is reconfigured as Equation 4.

Equation 4.

In this example, C_I is 0.13 µF; so, one would likely choose a value of 0.15 μF as this value is commonly used. If the gain is known and is constant, use Z_I from Table 2 to calculate C_I. A further consideration for this capacitor is the leakage path from the input source through the input network (C_I) and the feedback network to the load. This leakage current creates a DC offset voltage at the input to the amplifier that reduces useful headroom, especially in high gain applications. For this reason, a low-leakage tantalum or ceramic capacitor is the best selection. If a ceramic capacitor is used, use a high quality capacitor with good temperature and voltage coefficient. An X7R-type capacitor works well and, if possible, use a higher voltage rating than required which provides a better C-versus-voltage characteristic. When polarized capacitors are used, the positive side of the capacitor should face the amplifier input in most applications as the DC level there is held at 3 V, which is likely higher than the source DC level. Note that it is important to confirm the capacitor polarity in the application. Additionally, lead-free solder can create DC offset voltages. Ensure that boards are cleaned properly.

8.2.2.8 BSN and BSP Capacitors

The full H-bridge output stage uses only NMOS transistors. Therefore, they require bootstrap capacitors for the high side of each output to turn on correctly. A 470-nF ceramic capacitor, rated for at least 16 V, must be connected from each output to its corresponding bootstrap input. Specifically, one 470-nF capacitor must be connected from OUTP to BSP, and one 470-nF capacitor must be connected from OUTN to BSN. See the simplified application circuit diagram in the 說(shuō)明 section.

The bootstrap capacitors connected between the BSx pins and corresponding output function as a floating power supply for the high-side N-channel power MOSFET gate drive circuitry. During each high-side switching cycle, the bootstrap capacitors hold the gate-to-source voltage high enough to keep the high-side MOSFETs turned on.

8.2.2.9 Differential Inputs

The differential input stage of the amplifier cancels any noise that appears on both input lines of the channel. To use the TPA3111D1-Q1 device with a differential source, connect the positive lead of the audio source to the INP input and the negative lead from the audio source to the INN input. To use the TPA3111D1-Q1 device with a single-ended source, AC-ground the INP or INN input through a capacitor equal in value to the input capacitor on INN or INP and apply the audio source to either input. In a single-ended input application, the unused input should be AC-grounded at the audio source instead of at the device input for best noise performance. For good transient performance, the impedance seen at each of the two differential inputs should be the same.

The impedance at the inputs should be limited to an RC time constant of 1 ms or less if possible. Limiting the impedance allows the input DC blocking capacitors to become completely charged during the 14-ms power-up time. If the input capacitors are not allowed to completely charge, some additional sensitivity to component matching can occur which can result in a pop if the input components are not well matched.

8.2.2.10 Using Low-ESR Capacitors

Low-ESR capacitors are recommended throughout this application. A real (as opposed to ideal) capacitor can be modeled simply as a resistor in series with an ideal capacitor. The voltage drop across this resistor minimizes the beneficial effects of the capacitor in the circuit. The lower the equivalent value of this resistance, the more the real capacitor behaves like an ideal capacitor.